การสอบ TOEFL แบบ IBT

การสอบ TOEFL แบบ IBT

เป็นการสอบทักษะภาษาอังกฤษแบบบูรณาการ เป็นการสอบที่ต้องใช้ทักษะภาษาอังกฤษทั้งการพูด ฟัง อ่าน และเขียนในการสอบ โดยการสอบในแต่ละส่วนจะเชื่อมโยงกันทั้งหมด ผู้สอบต้องตั้งใจฟังสิ่งที่เขาพูดทั้งหมด เพราะหมายความว่าเราเราจะตอบ พูด หรือเขียนไม่ได้เลย ถ้าไม่ได้ตั้งใจฟังตั้งแต่แรก

การสอบแบบใหม่ช่วยลบจุดด้อยของนักศึกษาต่างชาติบางคนที่ได้คะแนนสอบดี แต่ไม่สามารถสื่อสาร นำเสนองานผ่านการพูดจาเป็นภาษาอังกฤษได้ดีอย่างที่ควรเป็น การสอบครั้งใหม่นี้จึงเหมือนการจำลองการเข้าไปศึกษาจริงในสถาบันการศึกษา ต่างๆ ที่อาจารย์ผู้สอนได้พูดถึงบทเรียนต่างๆ และการให้การบ้านเพื่อให้ทำรายงาน และนำเสนอต่อหน้าอาจารย์ เรียกว่าการสอนในระบบใหม่นี้ ไม่ได้ใช้เพียงทักษะด้านใดด้านหนึ่งเท่านั้น ในการสอบแต่ละส่วนแต่การสอบในแต่ละส่วนในส่วนต้องใช้ทักษะอื่นด้วย เช่น การสอบเขียน ต้องฟังสิ่งสิ่งที่เขาพูด หรือสิ่งที่เขาให้มาตั้งแต่เริ่มสอบจนเข้าใจเสียก่อนที่จะเขียนตอบได้ ไม่ใช่ให้เขียนตามโจทย์ที่ให้มาแบบ Essay ในแบบเดิมอีก ซึ่งระบบใหม่ทำให้รับรู้ถึงทักษะทางภาษาอังกฤษของแต่ละคนอย่างแท้จริง

สำหรับการสอบ TOEFL แบบ IBT จะใช้เวลาสอบประมาณ 4 ชั่วโมง โดยเน้นการวัดความรู้ทางภาษาอังกฤษในเชิงวิชาการ เพื่อใช้ความรู้ทางภาษาไปใช้ในการศึกษาต่อในระดับสูง โดยแบ่งเนื้อหาเป็น 4 ทักษะ ดังนี้

Reading
เป็นทักษะที่ใช้วัดความเข้าใจของการอ่านในเชิงวิชาการของผู้สอบ โดยผู้สอบต้องตอบคำถามจากบทความ 3 บทความ ในแต่ละบทจะต้องตอบคำถาม 12-15 ข้อ ส่วนนี้ต้องทำข้อสอบรวม 39ข้อใช้เวลา 60 นาที ระดับคะแนนจะอยู่ที่ 0-30คะแนน

Listening
เป็นทักษะที่ใช้วัดความเข้าใจในการฟังภาษาอังกฤษ ผู้สอบต้องฟังบทสนทนาในประเด็นทั่วไป 2 เรื่อง และ สถานการณ์จำลองในห้องเรียน 4 เรื่อง ต้องตอบคำถามจากสิ่งที่ได้ยินแต่ละบทสนทนา และเรื่องที่ได้ฟัง โดยส่วนนี้ต้องทำข้อสอบ 35 ข้อใช้เวลา 60 นาที

Writing
เป็นทักษะที่ใช้วัดความเข้าใจในการเขียนในเชิงวิชาการ โดยผู้สอบต้องแสดงความสามารถในการใช้ภาษา และการคิดวิเคราะห์ การพัฒนาความคิดในประเด็นที่ได้อ่านจากข้อสอบ 2 ข้อใช้เวลา 55 นาที

Speaking
เป็นทักษะที่ใช้วัดความเข้าใจในการพูดภาษาอังกฤษเนื้อหาเชิงวิชาการ ผู้สอบต้องตอบคำถามด้วยการพูด รวม 6 ข้อ หลังจากอ่านบทความ และการฟังบรรยายในแต่ละประเด็นข้อสอบใช้เวลา 20นาที ระดับ คะแนนจะอยู่ที่ 0-30คะแนนข้อสอบ

ข้อมูลจาก : เวปไซด์ TSL

ข้อสอบtoefl

LISTENING COMPREHENSION: PART A: QUESTIONS 1-30: SHORT CONVERSATIONS

ON THIS PART OF THE PBT, YOU WILL HEAR 30 SHORT CONVERSATIONS. LISTEN CAREFULLY TO THE SPEAKERS.

LISTENING PART A. MEANING QUESTIONS.

EX.1

Man: I've heard that the new Chemistry class is really difficult.

Woman: Oh, I wouldn't say that. I took Chemistry 402 last quarter, and I think the course went very smoothly.

Narrator: What does the woman mean?

(A) The chemistry class is very tough.

(B) The chemistry class is not teaching this quarter.
(C) The chemistry class is easier than the man thinks.
(D) The chemistry class should be avoided if possible.

"Oh, I wouldn't say that" indicates that the woman disagrees with the man. The best answer is C.

EX.2

Woman: I've heard great things about that movie that just came out. You want to go see it tonight?


Man: I'd love to, but I've got a history final in two days, and I haven't studied all quarter. I think I'd better take a rain check this time.

Narrator: What does the man mean?

(A) He needs to take a break from his studying.
(B) He loves the woman very much.
(C) He doesn't like going out in the rain.
(D) He will not be able to accompany the woman.

"I'd better take a rain check this time" means that the person "cannot do the activity." The correct answer is D.

EX.3

Woman: The bus isn't supposed to arrive at this stop for another 30 minutes. I guess we'll just have to wait until it comes.

Man: Normally I'd agree with you, but I'm only going to the next stop, and I feel like stretching my legs.

Narrator: What does the man mean?

(A) He is going to wait for the bus.
(B) He is going to wait for thirty minutes only.
(C) He is going to walk to his destination.
(D) He injured his legs and will return home.

"I feel like stretching my legs" means that the man "feels like walking." The correct answer is C.

EX.4

Man: How did you feel about the movie?

Woman: I was really moved by the performances. What did you think?

Man: I found them uneven: strong in some scenes, weak in others.

Narrator: What does the man mean?

(A) He has never seen a better movie.
(B) He thought the acting lacked consistency.
(C) He doesn't think the actors performed well.
(D) He had already seen the movie.

"Uneven" means "inconsistent"; the correct answer is B.

EX.5

Woman: It's burning up in here. When is the technician supposed to arrive?

Man: I called the company over an hour ago. They said she was on her way.

Woman: Yea, but the last time it took days for them to send someone out.

Man: You're right, it's anybody's guess when she'll show up.

Narrator: What do these people mean?

(A) She will come at any moment.
(B) She should arrive soon.
(C) There's no way to know when she'll arrive.
(D) They thought she would already have arrived.

"It's anybody's guess" means that there is "no way to know exactly when" the person will arrive. The correct answer is C.

[Skip To Grammar Review 1]

LISTENING PART A. IMPLICATION QUESTIONS.

EX.6

Woman: The milk in the refrigerator is sour. I don't think it's drinkable.

Man: No joke. The expiration date was three weeks ago.


Narrator: What does the man imply?

(A) The woman has an extremely sour disposition.

(B) They need to replace the refrigerator.

(C) The woman is just kidding.
(D) It's not surprising the milk has ruined.

EX.7

Man: It looks like Jane is coming apart at the seams. I think she should seek psychological help.

Woman: Oh, I wouldn't say that. She seems to be coping with her problems reasonably well.

Narrator: What does the woman imply?

(A) Jane is not losing emotional control.
(B) Jane is more intelligent than she seems.
(C) Jane made an excellent copy of the parts.
(D) Jane wouldn't say that.




Answers: Ex.6: D, Ex. 7: A

Saturday, April 26, 2008

ดาวน์โหลดดิกชันนารีไว้ใช้งาน ฟรี ! download dictionary free


Oxford Dictionary of English

ดาวน์โหลดดิกชันนารีไว้ใช้งาน ฟรี ! download dictionary free
[1] ประเภทดิกชันนารี อังกฤษ – ไทย, ไทย - อังกฤษ

โปรแกรมที่ 1: LEXiTRON (ดิก อังกฤษ – ไทย & ไทย - อังกฤษ) ประมาณ 20 MB
http://home.dsd.go.th/freeenglish/LEXiTRON.exe

โปรแกรมที่ 2: My Buddy Dictionary ดิก อังกฤษ – ไทย รวมดิกจาก 3 ฐานข้อมูลไว้ในโปรแกรมเดียวกัน ประมาณ 25 MB
http://www.thaibuddy.com/

ดาวน์โหลดดิก: (หมดอายุ 1 มกราคม 2552)
http://home.dsd.go.th/freeenglish/MyBuddy2.1beta.zip

โปรแกรมที่ 3: Loy Dictionary อังกฤษ – ไทย ประมาณ 25 MB
http://home.dsd.go.th/freeenglish/_LoyDictSetupZipFiles.exe
(เป็นไฟล์ Setup และรายละเอียดในการติดตั้งทั้งหมด)

โปรแกรมที่ 4: HighLight Dictionary (อังกฤษ ->ไทย และ ไทย-อังกฤษ ) ขนาด 10.5 MB
http://www.thaiware.com/main/info.php?id=3342
มีคลังข้อมูลบรรจุคำศัพท์จากพจนานุกรมอิเล็คทรอนิกส์ ถึง 3 เล่ม รวมกันกว่า 180,000 รายการ สมบูรณ์แบบด้วย ความหมาย , ประเภทของคำศัพท์ , คำย่อ , คำพ้องเสียง , คำเหมือน , คำไกล้เคียง , คำตรงข้าม, ตัวอย่างประโยค เป็นต้น สามารถใช้ร่วมกับโปรแกรมต่าง ๆ ได้ โดยจะแปลศัพท์ที่ คุณต้องการรู้ความหมายจริง ๆ โดยไม่ต้องพิมพ์คำศัพท์ใหม่ เพียงแค่คุณลาก Highlight คำศัพท์ที่ต้องการแล้วกดปุ่ม Windows Key + X โปรแกรมก็จะทำการแปลและแสดงผล ...


ดาวน์โหลดดิกชันนารีไว้ใช้งาน ฟรี ! download dictionary free
[2] ประเภท ดิกชันนารี อังกฤษ – อังกฤษ
โปรแกรมที่ 1: WordWeb 5 เป็นดิกอังกฤษ – อังกฤษ ใช้ฟรีที่ดีที่สุด [ขนาดประมาณ7 MB]
ดาวน์โหลด:
http://www.download.com/WordWeb/3000-2279_4-1000320

โปรแกรมที่ 2: Merriam Webster´s Concise Dictionary 2.1 [ขนาด 1.59 MB]
ดาวน์โหลด: http://www.download.com/Merriam-Webster-s-Concise-Dictionary/3000-2279_4-10059666.html?tag=lst-0-1

โปรแกรมที่ 3: TheSage´s English Dictionary and Thesaurus 1.1.2 [ขนาด 8.06 MB]
ดาวน์โหลด:
http://www.tucows.com/preview/412035
http://www.snapfiles.com/get/thesage.html

ดาวน์โหลดดิกชันนารีไว้ใช้งาน ฟรี ! download dictionary free

Saturday, April 19, 2008

ตารางเทียบคะแนน TOEFL, IELTS, CU-TEP และ TU-GET

คะแนนเปรียบเทียบระหว่างข้อสอบ TOEFL, IELTS, CU-TEP และ TU-GET

เพื่อตอบคำถามที่ผู้สอบหรือผู้ที่จะสอบข้อสอบ TOEFL สงสัย สถาบัน Kendall ได้ทำการวิจัยรวมทั้งสัมภาษณ์ผู้เกี่ยวข้องเพื่อเก็บข้อมูลเกี่ยวกับคะแนนเปรียบเทียบของข้อสอบทักษะการใช้ภาษาอังกฤษยอดนิยมของประเทศไทยรวม 5 ประเภทอันได้แก่ TOEFL CBT, TOEFL Paper, IELTS, CU-TEP, และ TU-GET ที่เที่ยงตรงเพื่อใช้เป็นข้อมูลอ้างอิงและคาดเดาผลคะแนนที่ถูกต้องและแม่นยำเมื่อเปรียบเทียบกับข้อสอบอื่นๆ

TOEFL CBT

TOEFL Paper

IELTS

CU-TEP

TU-GET*

173

500

5

60

n/a

213

550

6

75

n/a

250

600

7

90

n/a

300

677

9

120

1000

* สถาบันภาษา มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร์ไม่สามารถระบุคะแนนเปรียบเทียบของ TU-GET ได้เนื่องจากข้อสอบ TU-GET ไม่มีข้อสอบ Listening และ TWE (essay)

แหล่งอ้างอิง

  1. ETS http://www.ets.org/toefl/
  2. British Council http://www.ielts.org/
  3. คุณสุธาสินี เจ้าหน้าที่ด้านวัดคะแนนศูนย์ทดสอบ CU-TEP จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย http://www.atc.chula.ac.th/
  4. คุณปาจรีย์ เลขานุการสถาบันภาษา มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร์ http://www.tu.ac.th/org/litu/ttesting.htm

หากมีคำถามเพิ่มเติมลองดูรายละเอียดที่ http://www.toeflthailand.com ของสถาบัน Kendall

โชคดีในการสอบนะครับ

date March 04, 2006

รายละเอียดของข้อสอบ GMAT

รายละเอียดของข้อสอบ GMAT

รายละเอียดของข้อสอบ GMAT
วันที่ 17 มีนาคม 2549
เรียบเรียงโดย: ดร.สิระ สุทธิคำ, สถาบัน Kendall Square
www.ToeflThailand.com

Graduate Management Admission Test หรือข้อสอบ GMAT เป็นข้อสอบที่ใช้วัดความสามารถของผู้ที่ต้องการเข้าศึกษาในระดับปริญญาโทและปริญญาเอกสาขาบริหารธุรกิจซึ่งรวมทั้ง MBA, M.S. Marketing, M.S. Finance, MIS (สำหรับสาขา MIS ของบางมหาวิทยาลัยอาจต้องใช้คะแนน GRE แทน), DBA, และ Ph.D. ด้านบริหารธุรกิจส่วนใหญ่ต้องใช้คะแนน GMAT ในการพิจารณารับนักศึกษา

ภาพรวมของข้อสอบ
เป็นการวัดความรู้ในการสื่อสารซึ่งรวมทั้งการอ่านและการเขียน, ทักษะการวิเคราะห์, และ ทักษะในการคำนวณ ที่จะสามารถใช้เป็นเครื่องชี้วัดความสำเร็จในการเรียนต่อทางด้านบริหารธุรกิจ
จาก website ของผู้ออกข้อสอบ
www.mba.com ระบุไว้ชัดเจนว่าข้อสอบ GMAT ไม่สามารถใช้วัดความสามารถในเรื่องต่อไปนี้

• ความรู้เฉพาะทางของธุรกิจเช่น มาตรฐานของบัญชี หรือ กฎหมายธุรกิจ
• ทักษะเฉพาะด้านของงาน (specific job skill) หรือเนื้อหาจากบทเรียนระดับปริญญาตรีด้านบัญชีและบริหาร
• คุณสมบัติอื่นของการเป็นนักธุรกิจที่ดีเช่นความมุ่งมั่น, ความคิดริเริ่มสร้างสรรค์, และความสามารถในการทำงานร่วมกับผู้อื่น

รูปแบบของข้อสอบและเวลา
ข้อสอบ GMAT ประกอบด้วยข้อสอบ 3 ส่วนคือ 1. การเขียน (Analytical Writing Assessment) 2. คณิตศาสตร์ (Quantitative) และ 3. ภาษาอังกฤษ (Verbal)

ข้อสอบการเขียน (AWA)
ข้อสอบ GMATเริ่มจากการทำข้อสอบเขียนก่อนเสมอ โดยจะมีรูปแบบของข้อสอบ 2 ลักษณะได้แก่ 1.การเขียนเพื่อแสดงความคิดเห็น (Issue) และ 2.การเขียนเพื่อแสดงวิจารณ์บทความ (Argument) ผู้เข้าสอบจะมีเวลา 30 นาทีต่อหนึ่ง essay

ข้อสอบคณิตศาสตร์ (Quantitative)
หลังจากการพักจากข้อสอบการเขียน 10 นาที ผู้เข้าสอบจะต้องทำโจทย์เลขแบบ multiple-choice จำนวน 37 ข้อโดยมีรูปแบบของข้อสอบสองลักษณะนั้นคือ 1. Problem Solving ~24 ข้อ และ 2. Data Sufficiency ~13 ข้อ โดยมีเวลาทำข้อสอบทั้งสิ้น 75 นาที คอมพิวเตอร์จะหยุดการทำงานทันทีเมื่อเวลาหมด

ข้อสอบภาษาอังกฤษ (Verbal)
หลังจากการพักจากข้อสอบคณิตศาสตร์แล้ว ผู้เข้าสอบสามารถพักหรือทำข้อสอบภาษาอังกฤษ (Verbal) ต่อเนื่องเลยได้ โดยข้อสอบส่วนนี้จะเป็นโจทย์แบบ multiple-choice จำนวน 41 ข้อโดยมีรูปแบบของข้อสอบสามลักษณะนั้นคือ 1. การอ่าน (Reading Comprehension) ~14 ข้อ 2. การวิเคราะห์ (Critical Reasoning) ~14 ข้อและ 3. ไวยกรณ์และการเขียน (Sentence Correction) ~13 ข้อ โดยมีเวลาทำข้อสอบทั้งสิ้น 75 นาที คอมพิวเตอร์จะหยุดการทำงานทันทีเมื่อเวลาหมด

สมัครสอบ GMAT อ่าน
http://www.mba.com/mba/TaketheGMAT

จะสอบ GMAT ต้องอ่าน http://www.toeflthailand.com

รายละเอียดของข้อสอบ TOEFL iBT

รายละเอียดของข้อสอบ TOEFL iBT

รายละเอียดของข้อสอบ TOEFL iBT
วันที่ 16 มีนาคม 2549
เรียบเรียงโดย: ดร.สิระ สุทธิคำ, สถาบัน Kendall Square

จุดมุ่งหมายของ TOEFL
TOEFL เป็นข้อสอบที่ใช้ประเมินความสามารถการใช้ภาษาอังกฤษของผู้ใช้ภาษาอังกฤษเป็นภาษาที่สอง ในช่วงปี 2006 ประเมินว่าจะมีผู้ที่สมัครสอบข้อสอบ TOEFL กว่า 700,000 คน เราจึงสามารถกล่าวได้ว่า TOEFL เป็นการสอบทางภาษาที่ได้รับการยอมรับมากที่สุด และข้อสอบ TOEFL ได้ใช้เป็นต้นแบบสำหรับข้อสอบอื่นรวมทั้งข้อสอบ CU-TEP, TU-GET, IELTS รวมทั้งข้อสอบภาษาอังกฤษของ ก.พ.

โครงสร้างของข้อสอบ
ข้อสอบ TOEFL iBT วัดความสามารถการใช้ภาษาใน 4 ทักษะคือ Reading, Listening, Writing, และ Speaking (ข้อสอบรูปแบบ iBT ยากกว่าข้อสอบเดิมมากหากสนใจรายละเอียดเพิ่มเติมอ่านข้อมูลเพิ่มเติมได้ที่
http://www.ToeflThailand.com)

ข้อสอบ TOEFL iBT ได้เปลี่ยนไปจากข้อสอบ TOEFL CBT และ TOEFL PBT มาก มีการเพิ่มข้อสอบวัดทักษะในการพูดแบบเสนอผลงาน (presentation) และการทดสอบทักษะการใช้ภาษาหลายอย่างพร้อมกัน (integrate task) โดยมีรูปแบบของข้อสอบดังนี้

Reading เป็นการวัดความสามารถในการอ่าน

  • 3 เรื่อง (39 ข้อ)
  • 60 นาที
  • คะแนน 0-30
  • ข้อสอบ TOEFL ในส่วนการอ่านมีการเปลี่ยนแปลงจากเดิมน้อยมาก ได้นำโจทย์ประเภทสรุปใจความมาใช้เป็นครั้งแรก และให้คะแนนในบางข้อสูงถึง 3-5 คะแนน

Listening เป็นการวัดความสามารถในการฟัง

  • ประกอบด้วยข้อสอบ 2 ประเภท (1) Academic Lecture 4 เรื่อง (24 ข้อ) และ (2) Campus Conversation 2 เรื่อง (10 ข้อ)
  • 60 นาที
  • คะแนน 0-30
  • มีการเปลี่ยนแปลงข้อสอบจากเดิมบ้างเช่น บทสนทนาแบบสั้นถูกตัดออกทั้งหมด, มีการนำสำเนียงอื่นที่ไม่ใช้สำเนียง American มาทดสอบ, และการนำโจทย์ประเภทการสื่อความหมายมาทดสอบเป็นครั้งแรกด้วย

Writing เป็นการวัดความสามารถในการเขียน

  • ประกอบด้วยข้อสอบ 2 ประเภท (1) Integrated Reading + Listening 1 ข้อ และ (2) Independent 1 ข้อ
  • 55 นาที
  • คะแนน 0-30 โดยมีคะแนนดิบ (raw score) สำหรับแต่ละงานเขียนระหว่าง 1-5 คะแนน
  • เพิ่มข้อสอบประเภท Integrate taskซึ่งยากสำหรับนักเรียนไทยที่ไม่ถนัดการเขียนในเชิงวิเคราะห์และต้องใช้ทักษะในการอ่านและฟังเข้ารวมด้วย (หลักสูตรของ Kendall สามารถช่วยคุณได้อ่าน http://www.ToeflThailand.com)

Speaking เป็นการวัดความสามารถในการพูด

  • ประกอบด้วยข้อสอบ 3 ประเภท (1) Independent 2 ข้อ (2) Integrated Reading + Listening 2 ข้อ และ (3) Integrated Listening 2 ข้อ
  • 20 นาที
  • คะแนน 0-30 โดยมีคะแนนดิบ (raw score) สำหรับแต่ละการพูดระหว่าง 1-4 คะแนน
  • ผู้ออกสอบได้กล่าวอ้างว่าข้อสอบ Speaking เป็นข้อสอบที่เป็นระบบใหม่แบบ “ยังไม่ถอดด้าม” (New! Everything) แต่หลายข้อมีความคล้ายคลึงกับข้อสอบ TSE (Test of Spoken English) ซึ่งสถาบัน Kendall จะนำมาประยุกต์ใช้ในหลักสูตร TOEFL iBT ของสถาบัน

การสมัครสอบ TOEFL ในประเทศไทย
สามารถอ่านรายละเอียดบทความอื่นๆที่เกี่ยวข้องได้ที่นี่


จะสอบ TOEFL ต้องอ่านที่ http://www.ToeflThailand.com

TOEFL Prep Test


Select Word By Meaning
TOEFL test: Vocabulary Words: English Adjectives…
TOEFL vocab test: Increase Vocabulary: English Verbs
TOEFL verbal test: Teachers Games for Vocabulary…
TOEFL preparation test: Activities for Teaching…
TOEFL verbal preparation: Vocabulary Games…
TOEFL verbal word list: Improving Vocabulary…
TOEFL practice test: Improve Your Vocabulary: Noun…
TOEFL verbal test: Vocabulary Answers: Adjective…
TOEFL test: Vocabulary Exercises: Noun Adjective…
TOEFL verbal preparation: Vocabulary Tests…
TOEFL verbal test: Take a Vocabulary Quiz: Noun Tests
TOEFL verbal word list: Vocabulary Sentences: Verb…
TOEFL test: English Vocabulary Words: Verb Noun…
TOEFL practice test: Study English Vocabulary…

Grammar

Grammar

The differences in American and British grammar are as small and few as holds true for both versions of their lexicon. Still, here are some of them:

Use of the Present Perfect
In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example:

«She’s lost her purse. Can you help her look for it?»
In American English the following is also possible:
«She lost her key. Can you help her look for it?»

In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include «already», «just» and «yet».
British English:

«I’ve just received an email.»
«I’ve already answered it.»
«Have you completed your article yet? »

American English:

«I just received an email.» OR «I’ve just received an email.»
«I’ve already answered it.» OR «I already answered it.»
«Have you completed your article yet?» OR «Did you complete your article yet?»

Possession
There are two forms to express possession in English. — «have» or «have got»

«Do you have a computer?» «Have you got a computer?» «She hasn’t got any hobbies.» «She doesn’t have any hobbies.» «She has an interesting new book.» «She’s got an interesting new book.»

While both forms are correct (and accepted in both British and American English), «have got» («have you got», «he hasn’t got», etc.) is generally the preferred form in British English while most speakers of American English use the «have» («do you have», «he doesn’t have» etc.)

Present Progressive (also known as Present Continuous)
There are some verbs in British English that cannot be used in the Present Progressive while in American English they can. Here are two examples:

British English
«I like this conversation more and more.»

American English
«I’m liking this conversation more and more.»

British English
«I remember this quite clearly.»

American English
«I’m remembering this quite clearly.»

Adverbs
Americans tend to use adjectives instead of adverbs. Instead of «That’s really good» you might hear them say «That’s real good» or instead of «I’m doing very well» they say «I’m doing pretty good».

Here are some more examples:
British English American English
He did that really quickly. He did that real quick.
Let’s take things slowly. Let’s take things slow.
Her car drives more quickly. Her car drives quicker.

Plurals
There are a number of nouns that are uncountable (they don’t have a plural form) in British English while they do have a plural form in American English.
Here are some examples:

British English American English
types of accommodation accommodation
types of food foods
a lot of fruit many foods
strands of hair hairs

Conclusion
British and American English are more similar than they are different. New media and globalization enable more and more people to participate in an active exchange of ideas and experiences and therefore the geographical differences in the versions of English are becoming less instead of greater.

Pronunciation

Pronunciation

There are dozens if not hundreds of different ways to speak English. I can’t cover all the varieties of accents, dialects and derivations of spoken English in this article. Let’s focus on the basics here.
There are two major standards of spoken English — British and American English. Interestingly enough «RP» («Received Pronunciation», which is also known as «Queen’s English» or «Oxford English») is spoken only by about 5% of the UK population which means there are many different dialects to be found in the British Isles. If you travel the UK you will notice that the differences in pronunciation are stronger and wider than in the US although the latter clearer is the bigger country.
I think this is due to the fact that statistically the average US American relocates more often within the US than his British counterpart. A dialect develops when people live closely together for a longer period of time and the community creates their own unique way of speaking. No doubt people in the southern US states have that distinctive «drawl» whereas people from Boston sound pretty different. But let’s focus on the major differences between RP and standard US American English:
  • Americans usually pronounce the letter «r» by rolling their tongue back and pressing it to the roof of their mouths whereas most British people don’t pronounce the letter «r», especially when it occurs at the end of a word.
  • In American English the words «can» and «can’t» sound very much alike while in standard British English you can clearly make out a difference. (not so in most British made pop songs, though).
  • Americans tend to pronounce words like «reduce», «produce», «induce», «seduce» — mostly verbs that end with «duce» — more relaxed, that means after the letter «d» there follows the vowel «u». In British English after the letter «d» you can make out a little «j».
  • Americans have a tendency to reduce words by omitting letters. The words «facts» for example sounds in American English the same as «fax» — the «t» is not spoken.
  • Sometimes letters are omitted in British English such as in the words «secretary», where the «a» is not spoken.
  • In American English, the letter combination «cl» in words such as «cling», «climate», «club» etc., sound more fricative. You can produce these sounds by straining your vocal cords.
    Word Stress sometimes is different in both versions:

    British English American English («advertisement» sounds
    advertisement advertisement completely different
    details details in both versions)

Vocabulary

There are some words and terms that are either used only in British or American English. However, with new media like the internet and in the more internationalized world these words become fewer and fewer. That’s why I’ll give you only a selection of the examples I’ve personally come across. What’s really important is not that there are differences but that any British person understands any American without great difficulty and the other way round. I know I’m repeating myself, but please don’t forget that British and American English are more similar than different.
British English American English
lift elevator
boot trunk
autumn fall
litter garbage
crossroad crossing
trousers pants

Well, we could add to this list a couple of hundred words and phrases and even then the vast majority of the almost 1 million English words would be the same in both versions of English.
Just one last example I’d like to give you here as it might be a bit amusing. The rather colloquial phrase «I’m totally pissed» means different things in British and American English. I won’t give you the two different meanings here — if you really want to I’m sure you’ll have your own way of finding out.

Introduction

Introduction

English is spoken in many countries either as the mother tongue or as a second language. That’s why instead of «English» there are many «Englishes» — variations of the language. In this article I’ll focus on the two mostly commonly used versions of English — British and American English.
Before we take a look at some of the differences between the two main types of English I’d like to stress that these differences are somewhat minor and with the ongoing internationalization of our modern world they could even said to be diminishing.
The few differences that exist between British and American English tend rather to enrich communication than slow it down.
Although not all my British readers might agree, I think that the American version of spoken English is becoming more and more dominant for several reasons. Let me give you an example to show you why American English has a stronger impact on British English than vice versa.
When you go to the UK and switch on the TV you will see a lot of American shows, movies and films which, of course, are shown in the original, American version. Thus, especially young people watching TV will learn a lot of American vocabulary and phrases which they easily internalize and use as their own. It follows, modern British English is much more likely to be influenced by American English than the other way round because when you live in the US and watch TV you rarely will see a British show or film.
Another area where US English dominates is international business. Most globally operating companies are based in the US and hence the influence of American English terminology is very strong.
However, as with any issue, the more you think about it, the more variations you will encounter and it would be impossible to cover them all in one article.
That’s why we’ll move on now to the differences between British and American English. Instead of giving you a comprehensive rundown of all imaginable items I’ll limit myself to a small selection of my personal observations.

Spelling

When it comes to different spellings there isn’t really that much to say because in the near future the world will more or less agree on one uniform version.
British English has a tendency to keep the spelling of many words of French origin whereas Americans try to spell more closely to the way they pronounce words and they remove letters not needed, which makes sense to me. Here are some examples:

British English American English
centre center
theatre theater
realise realize
catalogue catalog
programme program
travelled traveled
neighbour neighbor
grey gray
plough plow
to practise (verb) to practice (verb)
practice (noun) practice (verb)
cheque check (noun)

Again, these are in my opinion examples for the most important spelling differences between British and American English. Of course, there are more of them and the purpose of this article is not to elaborate on orthography but to raise your awareness of the subject so you can make your own observations and draw conclusions.

As a teacher, it is amazing to see how people acquire language. It is especially amazing to see how babies learn to speak. The transition from «ga-ga»

As a teacher, it is amazing to see how people acquire language. It is especially amazing to see how babies learn to speak. The transition from «ga-ga» to «let's do this, dad» is a rewarding and exciting aspect of parenthood. What is really interesting is watching a child learn two languages at once.
My son, Elias, was born in February 1997 in Leipzig, Germany. His mother is German, and I am American. Naturally, he is being brought up with both languages being spoken at home, but for the most part his main language is German, this is because everyone speaks it — especially the children he plays with.
It was difficult for me to teach him English because I was the only one who really spoke it all the time. His mother would speak English to him, but she mixed more, choosing to speak more often in her native tongue. But she read him children's books, and sang songs to him in English, so he was exposed to it a lot. It was fun to watch a conversation between them because when she changed from German into English, he would continue speaking only German. If you didn't know one language or the other, it was like listening in on a telephone conversation.

Because he was acquiring two languages at once, it took him longer to start speaking. He of course would make sounds and imitate what he heard, but stating complete thoughts in sentence form was difficult. He would always mix words and grammar so what came out was «Denglisch» — a mixture of German and English.

Up until Elias was 4 years old, he would instantly speak German to everybody he met. Even if they spoke English to him first. It was as if he thought everyone could understand him and I was the only one who spoke English in his world. He knew he could speak German to me and I would understand, so other people must be the same way, except I would always demand that he spoke English. But once we stepped onto the plane he knew that the worlds were about to change, and that out there not everyone spoke German. He had already gone back with me about once to twice a year to America to meet his grandparents and his aunts and uncles. When he was in America, he couldn't speak English for the first week or two except for rudimentary sentences. He knew pretty much what people wanted, but he was unable to communicate it back, so I had to interpret for them and explain to him how to say things. Sometimes when he spoke, he mumbled or mixed. But he found that by playing simple word games he could repeat, he could acquire more vocabulary, but more importantly — interact. He and his grandfather had a game. His grandfather would call him a «wise guy». Elias would reply «No, you're the wise guy.» And so on. This was a lot of fun for him.
In the U.S., I would put him together with his cousins who were the same age so that he could interact with them. Elias was able to pick up a lot of new words that way, but that children really don't need many words to communicate. Their excitement, energy, creativity and curiosity as well as company is communication enough to keep them happy. They would always find universal things in common: playing choo-choo train, hide and seek, and so on. I noticed that Elias would imitate what the children said, much to the annoyance of his cousins. I had to explain to them that English is not his first language and that in order for him to learn he had repeat things. After that there was a little understanding.

Now, at almost seven years of age, my son still is unable to create the complicated sentences that a normal «monolingual» child of the same age can create. Simple things which we take for granted like: «as….as» to express equality, or «bigger than», or «neither/nor» are missing from his usage. Also the prepositions tend to be a bit funny. In German, prepositions are used very differently than in English. They typically go to the end of a sentence. Elias will use a preposition where there shouldn't be one at all. For instance: «I touch you on» or «I burn you on» or «I go on the toilet». He will also form questions or negatives without using the helping verb «do» for instance «I want that not», «I like that not» or «Want you that?» «How much longer takes it?» in other instances the verb comes first in German. Elias reflects that in his language. «Today, go I on the playground.» It doesn't matter how many times I correct him. For him, getting the idea out is more important than following the silly grammatical rules I set down for him, whereas, I feel he should speak correctly. I know that just letting him speak is more important for him now and he's learned how to ignore me. I suppose that I will have to wait until he starts reading and writing before he recognizes these little differences. Still, he speaks better English, than I German. This is something which I am a little jealous of, but at the same time, I am proud that he has had such an opportunity at such an early age.

Your learning efforts will be more effective if you have an overview of the language you are working with. That’s why we have put together a number of

Your learning efforts will be more effective if you have an overview of the language you are working with. That’s why we have put together a number of features characterizing the English language. In some aspects we compare English against German to better illustrate — you might want to compare these features with your mother tongue:
  • English is a very compact language. The average English word for example is shorter than its German equivalent. That’s because English verbs, nouns and adjectives don’t have endings. But don’t forget the Present Tense that has the letter «s» for the third person as in «he speaks». Also, there are many more English words containing only 3 or 4 letters than in the German language for example.

  • In English there is no «Du» or «Sie» form — an idiomatic pitfall that causes non-Germans as much trouble as the appropriate use of the formal «Sie» and the chummy «Du» when addressing people.

  • There is almost no declension and no conjugation in the English language which makes it much easier for someone who is learning the language to form simple sentences that are grammatically correct.

  • There are 19 German equivalents to the possessive adjective «your».

  • There is only one definite article in the English language whereas in German there are three.

  • Most words in English have several meanings. This can be an advantage for learners as you can convey different meanings using the same word in a different context. On the other hand this might cause confusion especially for beginners.

  • In English all nouns are spelled with small letters. Exceptions are:

    • proper names
    • the days of the week
    • the personal pronoun «I»
    • the names of the months
    • titles, positions and greetings such as Mr, Mrs, Dr, Director of Marketing, CEO, etc.

  • The English language contains a lot of homophones. These are words that have the same pronunciation but are spelled differently. Of course they have different meanings.
    Examples: meet/meat/, by/buy/bye, son/sun, waste/waist, through/threw, write/right, our/hour, then/than, here/hear…
You probably have made your own observations about the English language. Please feel free to contact us if you feel that something is missing here. Thanks.

People often ask us how to learn new vocabulary. Well, there are a variety of things you can do to speed up your learning process. Please, make sure y

People often ask us how to learn new vocabulary. Well, there are a variety of things you can do to speed up your learning process. Please, make sure you try different ways and methods because you have to find your own individual approach. Even the highest qualified English language trainer cannot really teach you anything. All they can do is to suggest various learning ideas that you can use.

Please do not make the mistake of thinking another person can teach you. That's an illusion and you should be very careful if a company or organization offers to «teach you». (Actually, to me this phrase sounds a bit like a threat.)

No matter how sophisticated their techniques and methods are — they all boil down to one very simple and rather disillusioning fact:

You can only learn yourself.

Any learning process has to take place inside your head and nowhere else. A good language school does not teach you anything. What they do is to interact with you in such a way that you learn the language. In the final analysis you won't find anything a language school can do that you can't do yourself. They don't earn their money by teaching you English but by stimulating you in such a way that you are learning English. If you sign up for a language course and don't do anything you won't make any progress no matter how much money you are paying the school.

Once you have understood this basic principle you will find it much easier to achieve the success you want. So, what is it that you can do to increase your word power? Well, basically two things. One — read this article and two — Do what it says.

There are thousands of books on learning techniques and teaching methodology and many of them are very scientific and hard to understand for the reader who doesn't want to get his master's degree in linguistics but simply looks for a guidline to learning languages. The gist of all those scientific papers is the following. When we talk about language we should view it as something whole. Language is a complex system and when you want to utilize it, you shouldn't dissect it into grammar, vocabulary, phonetics etc. Language will only make sense to you when you deal with it based on actual situations and contexts. So, you could start for example by reading a simple story in English. Try reading the story without looking up new words in your dictionary. If you stop at every new word you come across and translate it into your mother tongue you won't be able to absorb the story as a whole. As a matter of fact translating single words into your mother tongue will probably cause more confusion because most English words change their meaning depending on the context they occur in.

So, when you open your dictionary for the word «charge» you will find dozens of entries and you might get frustrated as you don't know which of the many different meanings of the word you should choose in your particular instance. Instead you could read on and focus on the words you do know. Try to guess the meaning of new words. Isn't it interesting to discover something new? Do you remember how you learned your mother tongue? You didn't bother when you came across a new word because as a child pretty much every word is new to you. You couldn't even read and still you started learning new vocabulary every day. Do you remember how? If not you might take a look at how your kids are learning their mother tongue or if your children are grown ups themselves you should find and observe kids aged 3 - 5 to see how they interact with their parents or other kids. They simply pick up new sounds and sound combinations and repeat them. They imitate their parents and have fun doing so. Kids don't know the meaning of the words they are repeating like little parrots. But let's get back to the story you are reading in English. Of course it is not possible to understand the entire text if there are too many unknown words in it. So, you can stick to your habit of looking up words in your dictionary — just change the way you do this slightly: Instead of stopping at the first new word to look it up in the dictionary you should try and identify the words that are more important than others. This might sound like an impossible task but when you read certain passages in a text several times you will understand how separate words are linked to each other and you will recognize patterns. Then you can select some of the words you think carry most of the information and look them up in the dictionary. When you read a text on your computer we strongly recommend you use Babylon Pro to look up new words. Babylon Pro is a little program that runs in the background no matter what other program you are currently working with. Whenever you come across an unknown English word you simply click with your right mouse button on this word and Babylon Pro shows you a definition in English. If you like you can have the word translated into your mother tongue too. However, if you want to enlarge your active English vocabulary it is much more effective to first read the definition of a new English word in English instead of translating it. So, for example if you don't know what the word «habit» means you can use Babylon Pro and it will tell you the following:

«A habit is something you are used to doing. Another word for habit is custom.» Now, if you still don't understand you can click on the word «custom» you will get the definition «tradition» which is a word you will probably recognize as it is of Latin origin. So, you are saying, what if you want to know how to pronounce this new word. Babylon Pro will do it for you. It comes with an audio feature so if you have a sound card in your computer a voice will say any English word for you. The program also recognizes idioms and word combinations which will speed up your learning process and make it fun.
To sum it up. If you want to increase your vocabulary you should follow these steps:

  • download and install Babylon Pro
  • find interesting texts in English that suit your level
  • read the text once for general understanding
  • identifiy the most important words
  • click on the words you have selected and read the definitions in English
  • you can click on each word that appears in the definition to get another defintion
  • click on the «say» button to learn how the word is pronounced
  • repeat the word 5 times

When you open a traditional language course book it usually starts with lesson 1 and goes down to lesson 10 or whatever the final lesson in the book m

When you open a traditional language course book it usually starts with lesson 1 and goes down to lesson 10 or whatever the final lesson in the book might be. Naturally you follow this logical structure and when you have completed the first lesson you move on to the next. At least that's what the authors of the book recommend you to do. And it all makes perfect sense, doesn't it? A language course must have a beginning and an end. Now, let's think about this again. Is this really so? What happens if you skip the first five lessons and start with lesson No 6 and then you move on to lesson No 3 after which you jump to lesson No 8. Have you tried this already? No? Then that suggests you like rules and structure.

However, in most real life situations you will find that they don't have the same sequence as the course in your exercise book. Even the grammar rules don't seem to appear in the same order as you have learned them. Language cannot be pressed into the pages of a course book. Language shouldn't be regarded as a course that starts at one point and goes on to another because language is a cycle that you can complete as often as you want and on every round you will discover something new. Traditional language teaching assumes that a person has to start at a certain level and then move on to the next stage. But when you learn a second language you already know all the grammatical concepts of your mother tongue. Take the Conditionals. In most language course books you will find them in the more advanced sections. Yet, when you use English to communicate with another person you might very well encounter a situation that requires one of the conditionals. In the world of conventional teaching there are learners with various skill levels.

Do you speak your mother tongue fluently? Of course you do so you have proved that you can learn any other language as well. Our psychology is programmed in such a way that we assume it must be hard work to learn a second language, it must take a long time and a lot of self-discipline but that's not the case. Do you know that a child aged 6 - 7 years already uses most of the grammatical constructions of their native language? (including any form of the conditional)

So, when you learn a second or third language you don't have to start from scratch - you already know the concepts of the tenses, the passive and active voice, modal verbs and so on. All you really have to do is change your habits and get used to expressing the same concept with different constructions and phrases. That's what it comes down to:

Changing your habits. If you grew up in an English speaking country you usually say «I'm cold.» when you feel cold. If your mother tongue is Russian you usually say «Мне холодно.» and if you are German you are likely to say: «Ich friere.» You see, in all three cases the concept is the same. What's different is the way to express this concept. The older you get the more you get used to your language but the more you are also aware that life is a series of changes you have to adapt to or even bring about yourself. So, when you want to learn a new language you don't have to start with «lesson 1» or even «lesson 0». You can pick any point out of the cycle and start there because sooner or later you will come across the point that is marked «lesson 1» in your language course book. There are advantages and disadvantages in learning a second language as an adult as opposed to acquiring your mother tongue as a child. The main disadvantages clearly are:

  • you have less time
  • you are aware that you must achieve a result and that puts you under pressure
  • your mother tongue will interfere with the new language (especially when you try to translate separate words out of context)
So, knowing these drawbacks you can adjust to them and even turn them into advantages:

  • you already know concepts a child has yet to learn such as abstract terms, rhetorical questions and subliminal processes
  • you can choose from a variety of resources and learning techniques
  • you can monitor and control your learning progress
  • you can compare grammatical structures of the new language and your mother tongue
  • your active vocabulary in your mother tongue is bigger than a child's so you have more words you can link new vocabulary to
This of course is only one part of the aspects to learning languages and the more ideas and concepts you try out the sooner you will find what works best for you. If you haven't achieved the results you want to yet it is not because you are not good at languages it is simply that you haven't found your own special way of dealing with them yet.

Business

Business
Historically, the term business referred to activities or interests. By extension the word became (as recently as the 18th century) synonymous with «an individual commercial enterprise». It has also taken on the more general meaning of «a nexus of commercial activities».
Businesses are established to perform economic activities. With rare exceptions (such as co-operatives, corporate bodies, non-profit societies and institutions of government), they are for-profit ventures. That is, one of the main objectives of the owners and operators of the business is to receive a financial return for their time and effort.

There are many ways to classify types of businesses. Service businesses offer intangible products and typically have different, usually smaller, capital requirements than manufacturers. Distributors will have different inventory control needs than a retailer or manufacturer.

Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information, usually via common system of symbols. It takes a wide variety of forms, from two people having a face-to-face conversation, to hand signals, to messages sent over global telecommunication networks. The process of communication is what allows us to interact with other people; without it, we would be unable to share knowledge or experiences with anything outside of ourselves. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing, gestures, and broadcasting.

Education
Education encompasses the teaching of specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgement and wisdom. One of the fundamental goals of education is to impart culture across the generations socialization.

Medicine
Medicine is an area of human knowledge concerned with restoring health. It is, in the broadest sense of the term, the science and practice of the prevention and curing of human diseases, and other ailments of the human body or mind. However, it is often used only to refer to those matters dealt with by academically trained physicians and surgeons. There are many traditional and modern methods and schools of healing which are usually not considered to be part of medicine in a strict sense (see health science for an overview). Medicine has two aspects: both as an area of knowledge (a science), and as an application of that knowledge (the medical professions). Evidence-based medicine is an attempt to link these two aspects through the use of the scientific method and techniques derived from safety engineering.

Software engineering
Software engineering is the technologies and practices used to create and maintain computer software, while emphasizing productivity and quality. These technologies and practices encompass languages, databases, tools, platforms, libraries, standards, patterns, and processes.
Software engineering applications include email, embedded software, graphical user interfaces, office suites, operating systems, optimizing compilers, relational databases, robotics controllers, video games, and the world wide web. Other important applications include accounting, airline reservations, avionics, banking, and telephony. These applications embody social and economic value, in that they make people more productive, improve their quality of life, and enable them to do things that would otherwise be impossible.

Technology
Technology is the development and application of tools, machines, materials and processes that help to solve human problems. As a human activity, technology predates both science and engineering.
The term technology often characterises inventions and gadgets using recently-discovered scientific principles and processes. However, even very old inventions such as the wheel exemplify technology.

Transport
Transport, or transportation (as it is called in the United States), is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin trans, meaning across, and portare, meaning to carry.
The field of transport has several aspects: loosely they can be divided into a triad of infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure includes the transport networks (roads, railways, airways, canals, pipelines, etc.) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as airports, railway stationss, bus stations and seaports). The vehicles generally ride on the networks, such as automobiles, trains, airplanes. The operations deal with the control of the system, such as traffic signals and ramp meters, railroad switches, air traffic control, etc, as well as policies, such as how to finance the system (e.g. use of tolls or gasoline taxes in the case of highway transport).

As you can see the second category of the sciences covers technical areas whereas in the next category you will be introduced to sciences that primarily deal with human beings, our behaviour, our thoughts and our relationship to the world at large.

Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humankind (see genus Homo). It is holistic in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times, and with all dimensions of humanity. Central to anthropology is the concept of culture, and the notion that human nature is culture; that our species has evolved a universal capacity to conceive of the world symbolically, to teach and learn such symbols socially, and to transform the world (and ourselves) based on such symbols.
In the United States, anthropology is traditionally divided into four fields: physical anthropology, which studies primate behavioUr, human evolution, and population genetics; linguistics, which studies variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; archaeology, which studies the material remains of human societies; and cultural anthropology, (also called social anthropology or sociocultural anthropology), which studies social behavior and beliefs (among phenomena studied by cultural anthropologists are kinship patterns, social networks, politics, patterns in production, exchange, and consumption, and religion). Around the 1990s, some U.S. Anthropology programs began dividing into two, one emphasizing the humanities and critical theory, the other emphasizing the natural sciences and positivism. In Great Britain, archeology is often treated as separate from anthropology.

Archaeology
Archaeology (or archeology) is the study of human cultures through the analysis of material remains (such as architecture, artefacts, biofacts, the human body, landscapes).

Economics
Economics is a social science which studies human activity in relation to meeting wants and desires through the lens of price relationships. Originally called «political economy», the word «economy» coming from the Greek «oiko-» for house and «nomos» for laws or norms, the derivation provided by Rousseau in 1755.
The term «economics» was coined around 1870 and was popularized by Alfred Marshall, and can be said to diverge from political economy in that it focuses more specifically on price relationships. For a fuller discussion of the differences, see political economy and value. Note that the word «economist» predated «economics».

Modern market economics was concisely defined by Lionell Robbins in 1935: «Economics is a science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.»

That is, the study of the trade offs involved between alternate sets of decisions. The central questions of economic theory are then what resources are scarce, and how does one make choices between the alternatives. The subject is said to be positive when it attempts to explain the consequences of different choices given a set of assumptions and normative when it prescribes a certain route of action.

Mainstream market economics focuses on the measurement of price, which are measurable quantities of the medium of exchange, generally money, which are involved in a transaction. Theories of value exist to explain the underlying quantities, if any, that price is said to measure. Divergences between price and actual outcomes occupy a large fraction of economic theory.

Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, trade, monetary policy and competition.

Geography
Geography is the study of the locational and spatial variation in both physical and human phenomena on Earth. The word derives from the Greek words he ge («the Earth») and graphein («to write», as in «to describe»). Geography is also the title of various historical books on this subject, notably the Geographia by Klaudios Ptolemaios (2nd century).

Geography is much more than cartography, the study of maps. It not only investigates what is where on the Earth, but also why it's there and not somewhere else, sometimes referred to as «location in space». It studies this whether the cause is natural or human. It also studies the consequences of those differences.

History
History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, such as in «geologic history of the Earth». When used as a field of study, history refers to human history, which is the recorded past of human societies.
The term «history» comes from the Greek historia, «an account of one's inquiries,» and shares that etymology with the English word story.

Historians use many types of sources, including written or printed records, interviews (oral history), and archaeology. Different approaches may be more common in some periods than others, and the study of history has its fads and fashions (see historiography, the history of history). The events that occurred prior to human records are known as prehistory.

Language
People have attempted to define language in a number of ways. Example definitions include the following:
  • a system for representing things, actions, ideas and states
  • a tool people use to communicate their concepts of reality into the minds of others
  • a system of meanings shared among people
  • a code that members of a linguistic community use to mediate between form and meaning
  • a set of grammatically correct utterances (i.e. words, sentences, etc.)
  • a set of utterances that could be understood by a linguistic community thought

Ferdinand de Saussure, the founder of modern linguistics, made a distinction between langue and parole. In any case, human language is the most central meaning of language. The study of language is called linguistics.

Making a principled distinction between one human language and another is often not possible. One major issue is the dialect continuum phenomena, where the boundaries between named language groups are necessarily arbitrary. For instance, there are dialects of German very similar to Dutch which are not mutually intelligible with other dialects of (what we call) German.

Linguistics
Broadly conceived, linguistics is the study of human language and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. Linguistic inquiry is pursued by a wide variety of specialists, who may not all be in harmonious agreement; as Russ Rymer flamboyantly puts it:

«Linguistics is arguably the most hotly contested property in the academic realm. It is soaked with the blood of poets, theologians, philosophers, philologists, psychologists, biologists, and neurologists, along with whatever blood can be got out of grammarians.»

Mythology
A mythology is a relatively cohesive set of myths: stories that comprise a certain religion or belief system.

Philosophy
Philosophy is the critical study of the most fundamental questions that humankind has been able to ask. Philosophers ask questions like:

Ontology
What is the nature of things that exist outside of us? Are there things in a natural world independent of our perception? Do our perceptions of reality match the actual reality that is «out there»? If so, how do we know?
Metaphysics: What does it mean to think, to have a mind? How can we know that other minds (i.e. other thinking beings) actually exist?

Ethics
Is there a difference between right and wrong, and if so, how can we prove this? How do we apply theoretical ideas of right and wrong in practical situations? Theology: What do we mean by the word «God»? Does God exist? Epistemology: Is knowledge possible, and if so, what is knowledge?

Philosophy
Philosophy is paradigmatically concerned with fundamental concepts such as existence, goodness, knowledge, and beauty; philosophers have often been particularly concerned with asking critical questions about the natures of these concepts-questions which don't seem to be amenable to treatment by the special sciences.

Political science
Political science is the study of politics. It involves the study of structure and process in government — or any equivalent system that attempts to assure safety, fairness, and closure across a broad range of risks and access to a broad range of commons for its human charges. Accordingly, political scientists often study trade unions, corporations, churches or other forms of collective intelligence that are not «political» in the sense of influencing law or executive decisions — but have structure and process approaching that of government in complexity and interconnection.

Psychology
Psychology is a collection of academic, clinical and industrial disciplines concerned with the explanation and prediction of behavioUr, thought-processes, emotions, motivations, relationships, potentials and pathologies. It might be said that many related disciplines live under the same name including: experimental psychology, which focuses on basic and applied science; humanistic psychology, which uses qualitative research rather than conventional statistical methods to investigate the subjective experience of human beings; clinical psychology and counselling psychology, which focus primarily on helping people overcome or better manage pathologies as well as transcend perceived limitations; and Industrial/Organizational Psychology, which applies psychological principles to people working in organizations.

Sociology
Sociology studies the social rules and processes that bind, and separate, people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions.

Anthony Giddens — in his textbook «Sociology» — defines sociology as the study of the societal lives of humans, groups and societies. Sociology is interested in our behavioUr as social beings; thus the sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes.

So, do you think you have made some progress in your preparation for the TOEFL test? You know the old saying: Rome wasn't built in a day. The definitions of the sciences are just one first step on your road to success, you will have to develop the habit of reading authentic English texts on a regular basis.

Astronomy Biology Chemistry Computer science Earth science ...

Astronomy
Astronomy is a science involving the observation and explanation of events occurring outside Earth and its atmosphere. It studies the origins, evolution, physical and chemical properties of all the objects that can be observed in the sky (and are outside the earth), as well as all the processes involving them. What subfields it includes is a question whose answer has been changing with the ages. During part of the 20th century astronomy was considered to be separated in astrometry, celestial mechanics and astrophysics.

Biology
Biology is the science of life. It is concerned with the characteristics and behaviour patterns of organisms, how species and individuals come into existence, and what interactions they have with each other and with their environments. Overview of biology
Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. Together, they study life over a wide range of scales:
  • at the atomic and molecular scale, through molecular biology, biochemistry
  • at the cellular scale, through cell biology
  • at the multi-cellular scales, through physiology, anatomy, and histology
  • at the level of the development or ontogeny of an individual organism, through developmental biology
  • at the level of heredity between parent and offspring through genetics
  • at the level of group behavioUr through ethology
  • at the level of an entire population, through population genetics
  • on the multi-species scale of lineages, through systematics
  • at the level of interdependent populations and their habitats through ecology and evolutionary biology
  • and speculatively through Xenobiology at the level of life beyond the Earth.

Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of the atomic building blocks of nature, how they combine and their combinations which form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up most forms of matter.

The periodic table of the chemical elements is a display of known chemical elements, arranged by electron structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.

College students typically study chemistry in the following «blocks»:
analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry and biochemistry. Often, discoveries in chemistry are made by physicists, biologists, chemical engineers or pharmacists.

Computer science
In its most general sense, computer science (CS) is the study of computation and information processing, both in hardware and in software. In practice, computer science includes a variety of topics relating to computers, which range from the abstract analysis of algorithms to more concrete subjects like programming languages, software, and computer hardware. As a scientific discipline, it is a very different activity from computer programming and computer engineering, although the three are often confused. «Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes.» — Edsger Dijkstra «Computer science is not as old as physics; it lags by a couple of hundred years. However, this does not mean that there is significantly less on the computer scientist's plate than on the physicist's: younger it may be, but it has had a far more intense upbringing!» — Richard Feynman

Computer science has roots in electrical engineering, mathematics and linguistics. In the last third of the 20th century computer science has become recognized as a distinct discipline and has developed its own methods and terminology.

Earth science
Earth science (also known as geoscience or the geosciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science. The major historic discliplines use physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system:

Geology covers the rocky parts of the Earth (or lithosphere) including the planet's core, mantle and crust. Major subdisciplines are geophysics, geochemistry, paleontology, mineralogy, and sedimentology.

Oceanography and Limnology describe respectively the marine and freshwater domains of the watery parts of the Earth (or hydrosphere). Major subdisciplines are physical, chemical, and biological oceanography.

Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere).

Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).

Ecology
Ecology is the branch of science that studies habitats and the interactions between living things and the environment. The term was coined in 1866 by the Darwinist and German biologist Ernst Haeckel from the Greek oikos meaning «house» and logos meaning «science»). The environment includes both the abiotic environment — non-living things like climate and geology — and the biotic environment — living things like plants and animals. Much of ecological research is concerned with the distribution and abundance of organisms and how these are influenced by characteristics and properties of the environment: organisms influence their environment and the environment influences organisms.

The term ecology means different things depending on who is using it. For many scientists, ecology belongs to the basic biological sciences. However, most ecologists argue that ecology is a scientific field of its own. For most non-scientists, ecology is first and foremost the protection of nature and the environment from humans and our activities; some argue that this position confuses ecology with environmentalism. Others view ecology as more than a science — to them it is a certain vision of the world, which would consist in people living in harmony with the other living beings, and in not seeing the other organisms which surround us as mere objects to be used, but rather as belonging to a larger coherent system.

Health science
Health science is a medical discipline of applied science which deals with human or animal health. There are two parts to health science: the study, research, and knowledge of health and the application of that knowledge to improve health, cure infectious diseases, and to understand how humans and animals function. Health science research builds on the pure sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics and also social sciences (for example medical sociology).
There are a wide range of traditional areas of health science. The most common areas are: medicine, nursing, midwifery, and various forms of therapy to supplement the healing process and restore proper activity (e.g. recreational, physical occupational, speech, and respiratory). Health science includes both the study and application of preventing and curing human diseases and disorders. Medical doctors include physicians and surgeons. There are many different branches of medicine; the other health care professions also have specialties or focus on specific populations or settings of care. Other less common medical areas include first aid and triage.

Dental health has grown in importance in recent decades making dentistry a major field of health sciences. Counselling, hospice care, home care, nutrition, medical social work, alternative medicine, pharmacology, and toxicology are all considered part of health science. Veterinary science is the health science dedicated exclusively to the care of animals.

Mathematics
Mathematics is commonly defined as the study of patterns of structure, change, and space; more informally, one might say it is the study of «figures and numbers». In the formalist view, it is the investigation of axiomatically defined abstract structures using logic and mathematical notation; other views are described in Philosophy of mathematics.
The specific structures that are investigated by mathematicians often have their origin in the natural sciences, most commonly in physics, but mathematicians also define and investigate structures for reasons purely internal to mathematics, because the structures may provide, for instance, a unifying generalization for several subfields, or a helpful tool for common calculations. Finally, many mathematicians study the areas they do for purely aesthetic reasons, viewing mathematics as an art form rather than as a practical or applied science.

Mathematics is often abbreviated to math in North America and maths in other English-speaking countries.

Physics
Physics is the science of Nature in the broadest sense. Physicists study the behaviour and interactions of matter and radiation. Theories of physics are generally expressed as mathematical relations. Well-established theories are often referred to as physical laws or laws of physics; however, like all scientific theories, they are ultimately provisional.
Physics is very closely related to the other natural sciences, particularly chemistry, the science of molecules and the chemical compounds that they form in bulk. Chemistry draws on many fields of physics, particularly quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and electromagnetism. However, chemical phenomena are sufficiently varied and complex that chemistry is usually regarded as a separate discipline.

Statistics
Statistics is the science and practice of developing human knowledge through the use of empirical data. It is based soundly on statistical theory which is a branch of applied mathematics. Within statistical theory, randomness and uncertainty are modelled by probability theory. Statistical practice includes the planning, summarizing, and interpreting of uncertain observations. Because the aim of statistics is to produce the «best» information from available data, some authors make statistics a branch of decision theory.

The word «statistics» comes from the modern Latin phrase statisticum collegium (lecture about state affairs), from which came the Italian word statista, which means «statesman» or «politician» (compare to status) and the German Statistik, originally designating the analysis of data about the state. It acquired the meaning of the collection and classification of data generally in the early nineteenth century.

We describe our knowledge (and ignorance) mathematically and attempt to learn more from whatever we can observe. This requires us to
  • plan our observations to control their variability (experiment design),
  • summarize a collection of observations to feature their commonality by suppressing details (descriptive statistics), and
  • reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (statistical inference).

[based on Wikipedia]

OK, how do you like the course so far? I'm sure reading the descriptions above you have been able to pick up some interesting and new vocabulary as well as to learn useful facts about the sciences. Before we proceed with our academic journey we should take a look at our language learning techniques. You know that you have to internalize a certain amount of English words when you aim to score high on the TOEFL test and get admission to a university study program.
Now, what is the best way to learn new vocabulary? To answer this question we have to analyse the structure of language. In most traditional English classes, as well as in course books and on «ESL» (English as Second Language) websites you will find that the English language is divided into several parts — with Grammar and Vocabulary being the two most frequently used sections. Do you remember your English lessons at school? You probably will recall that there were two major elements — Grammar and Vocabulary. Grammar meant a lot of complicated terms and rules — tenses, participles, modals, conditionals, active and passive voice, the gerund, relative clauses, compound sentences, split infinitives and so on.

As far as vocabulary is concerned — well, this part basically involved translating words from your mother tongue into English hoping that they would somehow «stick» in your mind. Unfortunately, you weren't able to acquire a substantial active vocabulary of the English language and you often became frustrated thinking that your mind was simply incapable of absorbing and storing all those words and eventually you gave up. Now a couple of years later you are facing the same situation again — you must learn a lot of new vocabulary in order to achieve a high TOEFL score and that's why it is crucial for you to understand the following: As we have already established it used to be very difficult for you to learn and memorize new English vocabulary let alone understand and use all those complicated grammar rules and their many exceptions. Have you ever wondered why it was so hard for you to learn English? It's a fact that the vast majority of the traditional teaching methods are rather ineffective and lead you to actually think that learning English fast and easily is almost impossible. Yet, learning English can be as much fun as playing your favourite sport. What you need is a slightly different approach to the conventional classroom method. View English as the means to achieve a goal rather than the goal itself. This means you should embrace the English language as a whole instead of dissecting it into grammar and vocabulary. When you speak in your mother tongue you use a set of word combinations, phrases, expressions and entire sentences that you have acquired through constant re-production and repetition. You can apply the same technique when you learn English: Always try to memorize words in a context. The English language consists of so-called «lexical items», that is, when you want to learn English for practical application you should be aware that every single new word you encounter usually occurs in combination with other words forming a lexical unit. There are different categories of those constructions — some are called «collocations», another category could be called «idiomatic expressions». You don't have to know all the details about this classification because too much of this information would only confuse you and slow down your learning process. Just remember this: Always try to memorize new words in context, that means in combination with other words. If you come across a sentence with an unknown word, don't just look up the meaning of that word in your dictionary. Instead, write down the entire sentence and try to guess what the new word might mean. In most cases your knowledge about the subject of the text you are reading will be sufficient to accomplish that task. Keep in mind that when you enrol in an academic course at an English language university you must acquire reading skills enabling you to understand authentic texts without translating into your mother tongue.

OK, maybe we should practise the lexical approach a little? Here are the definitions of the second categories of sciences. When you read them now you should try to guess the meaning of new words before you look them up in the dictionary.

Agriculture
Agriculture includes both subsistence agriculture, which is producing enough food to meet the needs of the farmer and family, but no more) and also (almost universally in the «developed» nations and increasingly so in other areas) the production of financial income from cultivation of the land or commercial raising of animals (animal husbandry). Agriculture is the practice — the study of these disciplines is called agricultural science.

Architecture
Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings. A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macro level of town planning, urban design, and landscape to the micro level of furniture and product design. Architecture, equally importantly, also refers to the product of such a design.

«How to score high marks on the TOEFL test?»

«How to score high marks on the TOEFL test?»
This is a question millions of test candidates seek an answer to every year. Now you are one of those people. Congratulations! You have made the decision to take the most widely used English language exam for academic purposes. Your TOEFL score will be an indicator of your linguistic proficiency as well as your capability of setting and achieving goals. Doing well in the TOEFL test you can accomplish various objectives: You will boost your self-confidence, your friends, family and colleagues will look up to you and of course your career chances will increase. Research shows that your professional success — no matter what industry you work in — largely depends on your command of the English language. That's why your employer or university, your study grant organization or any other potential partner requires you to take the TOEFL test and have your language and communication skills assessed.

So, how do you get prepared for the TOEFL test? Let's examine this question and find the answers together. First of all, you should be aware of the fact that there is no short cut to a high TOEFL score — you have to earn it. Also, it's important for you to focus on the bigger picture when you prepare for the TOEFL test — you shouldn't just learn for the sake of the exam. Instead, make it your goal to gain a higher command of the English language because this is an asset you will benefit from throughout your life. When you aim at improving your communication skills on a regular basis you will be ready to take an English language test any time. As a matter of fact, every time you use your knowledge of English (listening to an audio tape, reading a newspaper article, writing an email or speaking English to another person) you pass a «mini-test» of the English language. Before you take the TOEFL or any other English language exam you have to prove to yourself that you are capable of learning English and that you know how to use the language effectively. There a lots of ways you can assess and improve your English yourself. Learning a language is a bit like practising a sport: The more you practise and train the better are your chances to gain a top position in a competition. Before we go into the details of your individual TOEFL test preparation program we should establish some fundamentals — some basic facts that are essential to your success. Let's be honest — most people don't like examinations or tests. You probably remember how you used to feel when your teacher announced yet another English test paper and you had to cram all those grammar rules into head knowing that most the information was rather useless for your future career anyway. Getting poor grades in English at school reduced your level of self-confidence. You thought that English was very complicated language to learn and that because of your test paper results you came to the conclusion that you «probably have no talent in learning languages anyway». Now, you want to study medicine, law, architecture, computer engineering or any other subject at a university in an English speaking country. Chances are your parents are supporting you financially but they also want you to «do your homework» — part of which is your preparation for the TOEFL test. When you approach this task properly you will benefit in various ways. Here is an important piece of advice for you: No matter what your grades were in English at school — you have everything you need to excel in the language. You see, your school grades were not very objective to say the least. You might have been the best English student in your class and still, if you took the TOEFL test right now your score could be way below average. On the other hand, your English grades might always have been rather MEDIOCRE but with a concentrated systematic training you can do brilliantly at the TOEFL exam. Forget about the notion that you must have «a talent for languages» to attain a high command of the English language. Do you speak your mother tongue fluently? If your answer is yes then you already know the basic principles of learning a language. All you have to do now is PUT them into practice in a more goal-oriented way. What does that mean in regards to the TOEFL test? As you know the TOEFL assesses and evaluates your ability to use English in an academic context. Here is another of the fundamental facts you have to understand when you want to prepare successfully for the TOEFL test: There is no such thing as «TOEFL vocabulary». When you search the Internet or browse your local book store you will come across hundreds of websites and at least a dozen books claiming they would teach you «essential TOEFL words» or «TOEFL phrases» etc. Be careful when you encounter such products because they might trick you into thinking that is possible to learn the «TOEFL vocabulary» by heart. This is nonsense. As we've just established, «TOEFL vocabulary» doesn't exist. Do you remember the purpose of the TOEFL test? Exactly, the TOEFL assesses and evaluates your ability to use English in an academic context. The TOEFL doesn't assess and evaluate your ability to understand or memorize TOEFL vocabulary. Once you have grasped this basic concept it will be much easier for you to score high in the actual TOEFL test. If you agree I will remind you over and over again throughout our entire course that the idea of the TOEFL test is completely different from other tests such as the one you have to pass when you want to obtain your driver's licence. With a language exam there is an unlimited number of possible test questions so it doesn't make much sense to learn certain sentences by heart. Instead, we will analyse together which language items to focus on in our TOEFL preparation program and how to learn the appropriate vocabulary and information in the most effective way.

Let's take a look at what areas of the English language are covered in the TOEFL test. As you know the TOEFL is used as an entrance exam for people who want to study at a university in an English speaking country. So, when you enrol in an academic study course your English must be sufficient to follow the program, take notes and express the main ideas. As the TOEFL test is not intended for students of a particular subject or major we have to learn the basic vocabulary of a wide range of possible topics. The following is an overview of the sciences including a brief description. When you read through text you shouldn't translate any new words in a bi-lingual dictionary. Instead, you can focus on the words you already know and guess the meaning of any new vocabulary. If you find that are a too many new words for you to understand the general meaning of the text you should use an English-English dictionary to look up some of the main key words. When you are finished reading the definitions of the sciences we'll examine some techniques that help you absorb, comprehend and memorize new vocabulary. You can then apply those methods in your further TOEFL test preparation program.

Your first step toward acquiring a general academic English vocabulary is to define the term «Science». When you search reference books and dictionaries you will find various definitions for this word — the following is taken from the Cambridge Online Dictionaries:

  1. Knowledge obtained from the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical world, especially by observing, measuring and experimenting, and the development of theories to describe the results of these activities:
    • Pure/applied science
    • Recent developments in science and technology
    • [Space travel is one of the marvels/wonders of modern science.]
  2. A particular subject that is studied using scientific methods:
    • Physical sciences
    • Economics is not an exact science
    • Advances in medical science
  3. The study of science:
    • a science graduate/teacher
    • a science course/lesson

According to Napoleon Hill, «science is the art of classifying facts into categories». Now, what are these categories the facts can be classified into? Here is a concise structure of some of the sciences you can study at a modern university:

Category 1:
Mathematical and Natural Sciences

Category 2:
Applied Arts and Sciences

Category 3:
Social Sciences and Philosophy

As you can see there are four main categories all the sciences can be divided into. Which of them is your favourite one? Maybe, we should take a closer look to see what particular sciences there are in the main categories? Here is a more detailed view: [based on Wikipedia]

Category 1 — Mathematical and Natural Sciences:
  • Astronomy
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Computer science
  • Earth science
  • Ecology
  • Health science
  • Mathematics
  • Physics
  • Statistics

Category 2 — Applied Arts and Sciences:
  • Agriculture
  • Architecture
  • Business
  • Communication
  • Education
  • Engineering
  • Family and consumer science
  • Government
  • Law
  • Library and information science
  • Medicine
  • Politics
  • Public affairs
  • Software engineering
  • Technology
  • Transport

Category 3 — Social Sciences and Philosophy:
  • Anthropology
  • Archaeology
  • Economics
  • Geography
  • History
  • History of science and technology
  • Language
  • Linguistics
  • Mythology
  • Philosophy
  • Political science
  • Psychology
  • Sociology

So, what do you think now? How many of the topics above do you know? Is your favourite subject on the list? Ir you want to prepare for the TOEFL it is vital that you take a keen interest in the themes you are familiarizing yourself with. Also, getting ready for taking the TOEFL test you can kill at least two birds with one stone: You improve your command of the English language and on top of that you obtain valuable knowledge for your further study at university or college. That's why we'll have a third go on the sciences — this time you will read the definitions we mentioned earlier. Try to take in the vocabulary because this is good TOEFL practice. Maybe, you should read one definition at a time — no need to rush yourself through these texts. Follow the «How-do-you-eat-an-elephant» principle absorbing and digesting the information and vocabulary in many small instalments rather than trying to «swallow» the entire chunk at once. You can refer to the following descriptions of the sciences often, as a matter of fact you might even use this glossary as some kind of dictionary that you use whenever you read a newspaper article or any kind of academic text.